Image source: http://image.slidesharecdn.com/jeanpiagetcognitivetheory-140824215810-phpapp02/95/jean-piaget-cognitive-theory-3-638.jpg?cb=1408935532
Aditi M Sengupta [A paper on Cognitive theory applications as a course requirement for Eastern Michigan University]
COGNITIVE THEORY PAPER :
The object of education is to prepare the young to educate themselves throughout their lives. Robert M Hutchins.
William Perrys Theory:
William G. Perry Jr., a Harvard professor and administrator questioned why some students had difficulty in their writing or responding to the diversity which college exposes them to. Perry attempted to understand and describe these students way of viewing the world where they struggled to provide evidence to substantiate their thoughts while others refused to consider that any single opinion has more validity than others. William Perrys theory explains how college students make sense of what they hear and experience in the college classroom. According to Perrys theory there are three major stages of intellectual development that most students progress through: For dualistic students, they see the world as a place of absolutes. Knowledge is seen as existing absolutely. They tend to think in terms of right answers, the role of the professors is to provide the correct answers. Multiplistic students recognize that there are multiple perspectives to problems; however they cannot evaluate each perspective adequately. Their typical responses might be Were all entitled to our own opinions. In relativistic students, knowledge is relative to particular frames of reference. They try to look for the big picture. They think about their own thinking and may have difficulty in making a decision. The commitment in relativism makes commitment to ideas, peoples, values which are tested for validity of claims.
Implications of Perry Model for class room instruction:
Dualistic students often respond negatively and question the credibility of a Professor who fails to respond immediately with a firm answer. They can be confused when told there are multiple correct answers and the notion of right answers that carries over to evaluation of students. Dualistic students want absolute correct answers. Multiplistic students wonder why their answers are not correct. While working with dualistic students there is a challenge for students to consider the validity of alternative perspectives. The students should also provide support and concrete examples and opportunities to practice more complex thinking. Working with multiplistic students provides experiences that help them to distinguish between good and poor arguments and to encourage students to explore knowledge together.
The other cognitive structural theories include: 1.King and Kitcheners Reflective Judgement model 2.Baxter Magoldas Epistemological Reflection model 3.Kohlbergs theory of Moral development 4.Gilligans model of Womens Moral development.
King and Kitcheners (1981) reflective judgment model consists of pre-reflective thinking (stages1-3 ) which provides certainty of knowledge, but begins by acknowledging gaps by stage 3. The second part is quasi reflective thinking (stages 4-5) in which the knowledge must be justified and supported based on evidence. This is followed by reflective thinking ( stages 6-7) whereby understanding is not given or found but constructed and is contextual.
Baxter Magoldas model for Epistemological Reflection has four stages namely absolute knowing, transitional knowing, independent knowing and contextual knowing. Absolute knowing is focused on acquisition and transitional knowing on understanding and process. Independent knowing emphasizes on open mindedness and contextual knowing on thinking for oneself. The first three stages each have two patterns that reflect some gender differences in ways of knowing.
The Kohlbergs theory of model development includes preconvention (stages 1-2) involves obedience and punishment phases, conventional ideas( stages 3-4) which shows expectations of others and respect for authority, which dominate here and post conventional theories ( stage 5) which reflects equality and mutual obligation.
Gilligans model of womens moral development includes orientation to individual survival as required by self and individual desires. There will be goodness as self sacrifice, caring for others as basis for acceptance and morality of nonviolence which maintains the balance of individual and societal needs. The model of Cognitive Theory in the settings of Eastern Michigan University:
The model that is presented in this paper is based on student interviews at the setting of Eastern Michigan University; eight students described their experiences from their first year in college through one year after graduation. The students are divided into four groups based on gender and their similarities or differences in opinion.
Two students in their freshman years described their main purpose in joining the University due to availability of scholarships and closeness to home. Moise Foisch, a freshman in exercise science of African American descent and a resident of Toledo Ohio, preferred Eastern Michigan University as the University provided him with scholarship which gave him a competitive edge to look for challenges and a broad scope of interaction with teachers in a comfortable small learning environment. On the other hand, Rachael Gottman wanted to keep her decisions in choosing a major subject in the University private and emphasized on collaborative relationships with peers before verbalizing her intent. However, both of them had the same opinion that small sized classes are helping them to identify the interaction they desire in future.
On interviewing the second and third year students, it seemed that they are more concerned about how to apply knowledge and express them focused on understanding. Nathan Mentley, a second year student in computer sciences gave some critical thoughts about the limitations he faces as a computer science major in a small University like EMU as compared to his friends in other Universities. However he is confident of his potentialities as he uses the resources provided at Eastern Michigan University through internships and his relationship to his peer which has attributed the quality of critical thinking. In comparison, Noah McAuliffe, a third year student in speech therapy is overwhelmed with the observational experiences gained through rapport between her instructors and peers through sharing ideas. Both of these students related their educational experiences of relationships to the authorities.
Debbie Chung, a 5th year student in Special Education recognized knowledge as more of field experience accepting diverse ideas from course curricula and also her own ideas from her first hand experience gained over the years through collaboration between the teachers and students and also gaining the confidence to gain her education from one of the best teaching schools in the State. Her ideas are ably supported by Joe Keenan a final year student in construction management who proudly proclaims his course curricula at Eastern as one of the best in the State. He valued his experiences by availing the resources available through direct interaction with professors, preparedness, group studying and opportunities to attend regional conferences. He has the opinion that his individual preparedness to face new situations in job market both locally and internationally has been derived through winning regional competitions and has helped him to recognize the pattern of connection to the University curricula.
The requirement of supporting evidences to uphold the theories of cognitive development about changing an approach to authority as described by Baxter Magolda in good company is demonstrated while taking opinions from a students who is pursuing her second bachelors degree from Eastern Michigan University, Ebony Bargainer completed his Bachelors in psychology from University of Michigan before joining nursing at Eastern Michigan University. Her emphasis was on inter-individual knowledge which seems to be facilitatory in a setting of a smaller University with small classes, with scopes of more rewarding interactions, as compared to large lecture classes where the interconnectedness is much challenged. The same chain of thoughts is observed in the opinions of Sam Safford, a music education major planning to graduate in December of 2009 relating his motivation and achievement and his six years of experience to the diversity of student population , ability to maintain his integrity with adult learners and enriching experiences that has a promise to shape his future undertakings. All the students interviewed supported the same idea of staying in residence halls or close to campus which has made their learning experiences more enriching and meaningful and have helped them in gaining the legitimacy to learning and participating in the different educational programs that is offered by the University. This is a model that is presented by making assumptions about cognitive theories and their applications in educational programs in the settings of Eastern Michigan University, a medium sized University with limited resources catering a diverse population with a strong commitment to education. The inferences that can be drawn from the interviews and assumptions are:
1. The patterns of acquiring knowledge is socially constructed. 2. The best way to explore these patterns is through qualitative interviews and enquiries. 3. The reasoning pattern in each case should be fluid. 4. The patterns have been seen to be related to gender but not biased. 5. Constructive ideas developed from student stories are important. 6. Finally, the experiences gained from reading and direct interaction with students can be represented as patterns rather than stages of theory. There is always a limitation due to variation in individual experiences.
Implications of the cognitive developmental theory in developing Educational programs for students: The dominant pattern that has been observed on reading the different cognitive theories relate to the fact that the opinion of the students should emerge in proper perspectives, there should be evolving relationships with peers, and scopes of changing approaches to authority. The cognitive theory should provide opportunities to challenge and support students in developing their voice, appropriate relationships with faculty and instructors based on mutual respect and autonomy, with an emphasis on peer relationship and student responsibility. The students should be encouraged to focus on diversity, leadership development, and practical experiences through participation in student organizations, internships, study abroad programs, international experiences, and residential learning communities. The theories shed light on gender-related patterns of knowing and reasoning; interpersonal, cultural, and emotional influences on cognitive development. There are some obvious limitations to the cognitive development theories particularly in complex situations challenging the situations of existing static frameworks. This can be minimized only through reinforcement of peers as a legitimate source of learning to create environments and enriching learning experiences in the different undertakings of educational programs.
Questionnaires Prepared for Interviews on Cognitive Theory:
1.Think about the last time you had to make a major decision about your education in which you had a number of alternatives (e.g. which college to attend, college major, career choice, etc.) What was the nature of the decision? What alternatives were available to you?
Common Answer: Cost of education, Proximity to home. 2.Do you learn best in classes that focus on factual information or classes that focus on ideas and concepts? What do you learn best in the type of class you chose above?
Common Answer: Both. The 1:1 interactions with professors in a setting of small classes as compared to big lecture halls (factual informations), team spirits (developing concepts).
3. During the course of your studies, you have probably had instructors with different teaching methods. What are the most important things you learned from the instructors method of teaching? Please describe the type of relationship with an instructor that would help you to learn best and explain why.
Common Answer: The course materials, more effective when studied the materials were available beforehand, which made it easy to follow the instructions and guidelines. Individual attention and 1:1 interactions with Instructors.
4.What type of interactions would you like to see among members of a class in order to enhance your learning?
Answer: Opinions varied. In the junior years students wanted to have less interactions with fellow students, but in senior years the team efforts and spirit was acknowledged for completion of assignments and projects.
5.Ideally, what do you think should be used as a basis for evaluating your work in college courses?
Common Answer: Good grades, opportunities for internships and jobs. Hard work particularly before exams has been thought to be the basis of good grades.
6. What are the living conditions favorable to studies?
Common Answer: Residence halls in the first years, on-campus apartments and off campus apartments, very close to the Universities, in the subsequent years.
References: 1.Baxter Magolda, M. (1992). Knowing and reasoning in college: Gender-related patterns in students intellectual development (pg 3-190, 366-392, and 420-426). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
2.Evans, N.J., Forney, D.S, and Guido-DiBrito, F. (1998) Student development in college: Theory, research, and practice (pg127-145, pg146-170). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
3.King, P.M. (2006, August, 2). William Perry's theory of intellectual and ethical development. New Directions for student services.1978 (4), pg 35-51.
